MUMBAI UNIVERSITY IDOL NOTES

Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning, Architecture And Script

Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning, Architecture And Script Hey Mumbai University SYBA IDOL students! Today, we’re diving into the fascinating world of ANCIENT INDIA, exploring about – “Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning, Architecture And Script“. This civilization thrived around 2500 BCE in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Our discussion will focus on three main topics that showcase the achievements of the people who lived during this time. First, we will delve into the art and architecture of the Indus Valley people. You will learn how their buildings, streets, and overall urban design reflect their understanding of space and functionality. Next, we will look at short notes on specific topics related to this civilization. We will start with the seals of the Indus Valley, which are intriguing artifacts that provide insights into their trade, culture, and possible writing system. Then, we will discuss the town planning of the Indus Valley. You will discover how cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were meticulously planned with sophisticated drainage systems and organized layouts. Finally, we will identify some of the important sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. These sites will help us understand the extent of their influence and the legacy they left behind. By the end of our session, you will have a clearer picture of the Indus Valley Civilization and its remarkable contributions to the history of India. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning, Architecture And Script” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Write an essay on the Art and Architecture of the Indus Valley People Introduction: The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the world’s first urban cultures, thriving around 2500 BCE in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. This civilization is famous for its advanced urban planning, impressive architecture, and unique artistic expressions. These features help us understand the life, culture, and values of the people who lived during this time. Urban Planning and Architecture: The cities of the Indus Valley, like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, were well-planned and organized. The streets of these cities followed a grid pattern, which means they intersected at right angles. This careful design shows that the Indus Valley people had a strong system of administration and community organization. The houses were made of baked bricks that were all the same size, showing their advanced building techniques. One of the most impressive features of Indus Valley architecture is the drainage system. The cities had well-designed drainage channels along the streets, with houses connected to these channels. This shows that they understood the importance of sanitation and public health, which was quite advanced for their time. Another important structure is the Great Bath in Mohenjo-Daro. This large public water tank was likely used for rituals, indicating that water played a significant role in their culture. Artistic Expressions: The art of the Indus Valley Civilization is varied and includes pottery, sculpture, seals, and jewelry. The pottery from this period is often beautifully decorated with intricate designs, including geometric patterns and animal images. The use of a red slip and painted designs shows a high level of artistic skill. The seals made from a stone called steatite are among the most important artistic items of the Indus Valley. These seals usually feature detailed carvings of animals, such as unicorns, along with inscriptions in a script that we still cannot read. These seals were likely used for trade and administration, serving as identification for merchants and their goods. The skill shown in these seals reflects the artisans’ abilities and the cultural beliefs of the society. Although sculpture is less common, there are notable pieces like the famous “Dancing Girl” bronze statue. This small figure, with its detailed features and lively pose, shows the high level of skill in metalworking and an appreciation for the human form. Cultural Significance: The art and architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization tell us a lot about the social, economic, and religious life of its people. The focus on urban planning and public facilities indicates a society that valued order and the well-being of the community. The artistic expressions found in pottery, seals, and sculptures show a rich cultural life, highlighting aspects of trade, religion, and possibly social structure. The presence of various symbols in their art suggests that they may have had beliefs that included nature worship or animism. The images of animals and specific symbols likely had religious meaning, reflecting the values and beliefs of the Indus Valley people. Conclusion: The art and architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization are remarkable achievements of one of the world’s earliest urban societies. Their advanced urban planning, sophisticated drainage systems, and diverse artistic expressions showcase a culture that was not only functional but also rich in aesthetics and spirituality. The legacy of the Indus Valley people continues to fascinate historians and archaeologists, providing a glimpse into a civilization that laid the groundwork for future cultures in the Indian subcontinent. Follow Us For More Updates Instagram Telegram Whatsapp Question 2:- The Seals of Indus Valley Introduction: The seals of the Indus Valley Civilization are among the most important artifacts from this ancient culture. They offer valuable insights into the people’s trade, administration, and possibly their religious beliefs. Made mostly from a soft stone called steatite, these seals were beautifully carved and featured various designs, symbols, and inscriptions. This essay will discuss the characteristics, functions, and cultural significance of these fascinating seals. 1. Characteristics of Indus Valley Seals Material and Craftsmanship: Most seals were made from steatite, which is a soft stone that artisans could easily carve. The craftsmen of the Indus Valley showed great skill in their work, creating seals that were both practical and artistically beautiful. The seals were often polished to a smooth finish, which made them even more attractive. Design and Motifs: The designs on the seals were intricate and often included animal figures like unicorns, elephants, and bulls, as

Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning, Architecture And Script Read More »

Literary Sources And Foreign Travellers Accounts

Literary Sources And Foreign Travellers Accounts Hey, Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we’re setting off on a fascinating journey through Ancient Indian history exploring about – “Literary Sources And Foreign Travellers Accounts“. These texts and observations help us uncover details about daily life, culture, religion, and politics from thousands of years ago, giving us a deeper understanding of what life was like in ancient times. First, we’ll look at secular literature as a source of history. Unlike religious texts, secular literature focuses on everyday aspects of life and society. This means it gives us a more rounded view of history, showing us the norms, values, and social dynamics that shaped ancient India. Next, we’ll move on to several important literary sources and foreign accounts that bring ancient India’s vibrant past to life. These include foreign travelers’ accounts, which are valuable records written by visitors from other countries. These travelers wrote about everything they saw here—our customs, religious practices, economy, and more—offering us a unique, outside perspective on ancient Indian society. We’ll also explore The Vedic Literature, which is central to Indian culture and religion. The Vedas contain early beliefs, rituals, and stories that formed the core of Indian spirituality and philosophy. Following that, we’ll delve into the Jataka Stories—tales that describe the previous lives of the Buddha. These stories not only teach morals but also reflect the social conditions of the time, giving us clues about ancient values and lifestyles. Our journey will also touch on Jain literature, sacred texts that tell us about Jain beliefs, values, and their unique contributions to Indian society. Similarly, Buddhist literature in Pali and Sanskrit sheds light on the teachings of Buddhism and its impact on Indian and Asian cultures. We won’t stop there! We’ll also examine the accounts of the Greeks, who were drawn to India’s wealth, culture, and political systems. Their records give us valuable outside insights into India’s trade connections and governance. Finally, we’ll look at Chinese pilgrims’ accounts. Many Chinese monks traveled to India, documenting their journeys with special attention to Buddhism and its practices. These records highlight the cultural exchange between India and China and the spread of Indian spiritual teachings. By the end of today’s session, you’ll understand how literary sources and foreign accounts give us a deeper look into ancient India. These texts are like treasure troves of knowledge, each offering us a unique angle on the past. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Literary Sources And Foreign Travellers Accounts” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Critically examine the secular literature asthe Sources of history Introduction: Secular literature plays an important role in helping us understand ancient Indian history. It provides valuable insights into the social, economic, political, and cultural conditions of the time. By examining various texts from this period, we can gather a clearer picture of how people lived, what they believed, and how societies functioned. This answer will explore the significance of secular literature and its impact on our understanding of ancient India. Diversity of Content: One of the key strengths of secular literature is its diversity. It includes many different types of writing, such as biographies, dramas, poetry, and essays on various topics like art, architecture, science, and medicine. This wide range allows historians to see many sides of ancient Indian society. For example, by reading a play or a poem, we can learn about the values and beliefs of ordinary people, while a scientific treatise can reveal the knowledge and skills that existed at the time. Historical Context: Secular texts like Kautilya’s Arthashastra are particularly important because they provide detailed information about the political systems and economic conditions during the Mauryan period. The Arthashastra discusses how to govern effectively, manage resources, and deal with challenges in leadership. This kind of information is crucial for building a complete picture of ancient governance and administration, helping us understand how ancient societies operated. Cultural Insights: Secular literature also offers a glimpse into the everyday lives of people. Works like the Gatha Saptashati show us the social and cultural life of various communities, highlighting their experiences, beliefs, and daily practices. By studying these texts, we gain insights into the customs and traditions that shaped ancient Indian culture. This helps us appreciate the richness and diversity of life during that time. Supplementing Religious Texts: While religious texts focus on spiritual and philosophical themes, secular literature complements them by addressing more practical, worldly matters. This balance between the sacred and the secular is important for fully understanding ancient Indian history. Together, these types of literature provide a more rounded view of society, capturing both the spiritual and everyday aspects of life. Limitations and Bias: Despite its value, secular literature has its challenges. Many works may reflect the author’s perspective, which can lead to biases in how events and people are portrayed. Furthermore, ancient India did not have a systematic way of recording history, which means some events might be documented in a fragmented way. This makes it difficult for historians to piece together a clear timeline of events. Interconnectedness with Foreign Accounts: The interactions between India and other countries also enrich our understanding of ancient history. The trade and cultural exchanges between India and foreign nations are documented in both Indian secular literature and accounts from foreign travelers. This interconnectedness helps provide a broader context for historical developments, showing how ideas and practices were shared across cultures. Conclusion: Secular literature is an essential source for studying ancient Indian history. It offers rich insights into various aspects of life, helping us understand the complexities of ancient societies. However, it is important to approach these texts with a critical eye, considering their context, possible biases, and how they relate to other historical sources. By doing so, we can create a more accurate and nuanced understanding of ancient India’s history. Follow Us For More Updates Instagram Telegram Whatsapp Question 2 :- Foreign Traveller’s account Introduction: Foreign travelers’ accounts are very important for understanding the history of ancient India. These writings provide unique insights into Indian society, culture, economy, and politics from the perspective of outsiders who visited the country. By examining these accounts,

Literary Sources And Foreign Travellers Accounts Read More »

Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-I

Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-I Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-I.” This is a critical stage in life where relationships and personal growth play a significant role in shaping who we are. We will begin by discussing intimacy, liking, and loving. Understanding these feelings helps us recognize how deep connections form between individuals, and we will provide examples to make these concepts clearer. Next, we will examine why choosing a partner is crucial during early adulthood. Selecting a partner can have a lasting impact on your life and happiness, and we will explore the factors that make this choice so important. Additionally, we will look at attachment styles and how they influence romantic relationships. Understanding your attachment style can provide insights into how you connect with others. We will also cover the topic of parenthood, discussing the responsibilities and changes that come with becoming a parent. As we continue, we will examine early marital conflict, as it’s common for couples to face challenges. Knowing how to navigate these conflicts is essential for a healthy relationship. Finally, we will conclude with a discussion on several key concepts, including passionate and companionate love, highlighting the differences and dynamics between these types of love. We will also explore Sternberg’s Triangular Theory, which helps us understand the components of love and how they interact. We will discuss the dynamics of dual earner couples, where both partners work, and we will reflect on the reasons why some individuals choose to remain single and what it means to want to be alone. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-I” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Write a note on:- Question 1:- Passionate and companionate love Introduction: Love is a complex feeling that can take many forms. In romantic relationships, two important types of love are passionate love and companionate love. Each type has its own features and plays a different role in how partners connect with each other. Understanding these two types of love can help individuals build healthier and happier relationships. This answer will explore the characteristics of passionate love, companionate love, how they relate to each other, and their significance in romantic partnerships. Passionate Love: Passionate love is often described as a powerful and intense emotional experience. Here are some key characteristics of passionate love: Physical Attraction: Partners in passionate love feel a strong physical pull towards each other. This includes sexual desire and a deep longing to be close physically. Emotional Intensity: This type of love is marked by strong emotions, like excitement and infatuation. People may feel very happy when they are with their partner, but they can also experience anxiety or sadness if things don’t go well. Idealization: When in passionate love, partners often see each other as perfect and focus only on the good things, ignoring any flaws. This idealization can create a “starry-eyed” view where everything about the partner seems wonderful. Desire for Union: There is a strong wish for both emotional and physical closeness. Couples may feel an urgent need to be together and may become upset when they are apart. Temporary Nature: While passionate love can be thrilling, it often doesn’t last forever. Over time, the intensity might fade, and the relationship may shift towards companionate love. Companionate Love: Companionate love, in contrast, is a deeper and more stable form of love that develops over time. Here are its main features: Emotional Bonding: Companionate love is based on a strong emotional connection, trust, and respect. Partners share a bond that goes beyond just physical attraction. Commitment and Stability: This type of love is often linked to long-term commitment. Partners are dedicated to supporting each other through different challenges and changes in life. Shared Goals and Values: Couples in companionate love often have common goals and values. They work as a team to navigate their life together. Affection and Care: Companionate love focuses on caring for each other and enjoying each other’s company. Partners find comfort in being together and share affectionate moments. Enduring Nature: Companionate love is usually more lasting than passionate love. It offers a sense of security and satisfaction that helps keep the relationship strong over time. The Relationship Between Passionate and Companionate Love: While passionate and companionate love are different, they can coexist in a romantic relationship. Here’s how they relate: Transition Over Time: Many relationships start with passionate love, which can change into companionate love as partners get to know each other better and create a stronger emotional bond. Balance of Both Types: Healthy relationships can include both passionate and companionate love. Couples can keep the excitement alive while also nurturing their emotional closeness and commitment. Sustaining Passion: To maintain the passion in their relationship, couples can try new things together, communicate openly, and spend quality time with one another. Conclusion: Understanding the differences between passionate love and companionate love can help individuals navigate their romantic relationships better. Passionate love brings excitement and intensity, while companionate love offers stability and emotional fulfillment. A successful relationship often involves a mix of both types of love, allowing partners to enjoy the thrill of passion while also building a strong and lasting connection. By recognizing and nurturing these types of love, couples can create a fulfilling and enduring relationship that withstands the test of time. Question 2:- Sternberg’s Triangular Theory Introduction Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love is an important idea that helps us understand love in romantic relationships. According to Sternberg, love has three main parts: passion, intimacy, and commitment. These components work together in different ways to create various types of love experiences. This answer will explain each component, describe the different types of love based on these components, discuss the dynamic nature of love, and conclude with the significance of this theory in understanding relationships.

Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-I Read More »

Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-II

Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-II Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-II.” These topics will help you understand how people make career choices and what influences their satisfaction at work. First, we will discuss Ginsberg’s career choice theory, which explains how people choose their careers based on their age and experiences. Next, we will look at Holland’s personality type theory, which categorizes people into different personality types that align with specific careers. Then, we will answer a couple of key questions: Why do people work? We will briefly explore the various motivations behind work. After that, we will write a detailed note on job satisfaction and what factors contribute to how happy people feel at their jobs. We will also examine how gender plays a role in the workplace, looking at the different experiences and expectations for men and women in their jobs. Lastly, we will briefly explain the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, helping you understand what drives people to perform well in their work. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-II” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Explain Ginsberg’s career choice theory Introduction: Ginzberg’s Career Choice Theory is an important framework that helps us understand how people choose their careers over time. According to this theory, individuals go through different stages when making career decisions. These stages reflect how their thinking and understanding about work develop from childhood to early adulthood. By exploring these stages, we can see how personal interests and experiences shape career choices. 1. Fantasy Period: The first stage is called the Fantasy Period, which lasts from childhood up to around age 11. During this time, children often make career choices based on what they imagine is fun or exciting. They think about jobs like being a doctor, astronaut, or artist without fully understanding what those jobs really involve. At this stage, the choices are influenced by their dreams and fantasies rather than reality. 2. Tentative Period: The second stage is known as the Tentative Period, which occurs from late childhood to adolescence. In this phase, young people start to think more realistically about their career options. They begin to consider their own skills and abilities and think about what they enjoy doing. They try to match their personal values and goals with different job opportunities. This reflection helps them to see which careers might be a good fit for them in the future. 3. Realistic Period: The final stage is called the Realistic Period, which happens in early adulthood. During this time, individuals start to explore specific careers more seriously. They may seek out hands-on experiences through internships or training programs. This exploration allows them to narrow down their choices and make more informed decisions about their career paths. At this stage, individuals are more committed to a career based on their experiences and knowledge gained from previous stages. Conclusion: Ginzberg’s Career Choice Theory highlights that career decisions are not made all at once but are part of a developmental process. People are influenced by their interests, abilities, and the circumstances around them. Although this theory provides a clear structure for understanding career choices, some critics argue that it may oversimplify how complex these decisions can be. They believe that the ages for each stage might be too strict because factors like socioeconomic status can greatly impact career choices. Overall, Ginzberg’s theory helps us appreciate the journey individuals take as they discover and commit to their careers. Question 2:- Describe Holland’s personality type theory Introduction: Holland’s Personality Type Theory is a useful framework that helps us understand how our personality traits can influence the careers we choose. According to this theory, people are more likely to be happy and successful in their jobs when there is a good match between their personality and the work environment. Holland identified six main personality types, each connected to specific career paths. Understanding these types can guide individuals in finding careers that suit their strengths and preferences. 1. Realistic: The Realistic type includes individuals who are practical and down-to-earth. They often prefer hands-on work and enjoy solving problems. People with this personality type tend to excel in careers such as farming, labor, or technical fields where they can engage in physical activities and use their skills to create or fix things. 2. Intellectual: The Intellectual personality type is characterized by a love for theoretical and abstract thinking. These individuals enjoy working with ideas rather than with people. They are often well-suited for careers in science, mathematics, and research, where they can explore concepts and solve complex problems. 3. Social: Individuals with a Social personality type possess strong interpersonal skills and enjoy working with others. They often seek careers that allow them to help and interact with people, such as teaching, counseling, or healthcare. These careers enable them to make a positive impact on others’ lives and foster connections. 4. Conventional: The Conventional type prefers structured tasks and clear rules. These individuals thrive in organized environments and often find success in roles like clerks, secretaries, or accountants. They are detail-oriented and enjoy working with established systems and procedures. 5. Enterprising: Enterprising types are natural leaders and risk-takers. They enjoy influencing others and are often successful in fields such as management, sales, or entrepreneurship. Their ability to motivate and inspire can lead to significant achievements in these dynamic environments. 6. Artistic: The Artistic personality type is drawn to creative expression. Individuals with this type often seek careers in the arts, design, or media, where they can showcase their originality and creativity. They typically prefer flexible environments that allow for personal expression rather than strict structure. Conclusion: Holland’s Personality Type Theory is widely used by career counselors because it helps people understand how their personalities can impact their job satisfaction. By

Social And Personality Development In Early Adulthood-II Read More »

Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-II

Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-II Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-II.” Early adulthood is not just about physical growth; it’s also a time when the way we understand, think, and make decisions takes on a new depth and complexity. We’ll look at how young adults develop new ways of thinking, guided by key ideas from researchers like Perry and Schaie, who each have unique perspectives on how cognitive growth happens in this stage of life. Their ideas will help us see how adults move from learning facts to developing broader understandings and personal viewpoints. We’ll also discuss how intelligence is defined today and how different life events can shape and expand our cognitive abilities as young adults. Since many young adults are in college, we’ll talk about who college students are today—their demographics and diverse backgrounds that make college a unique place of growth and learning. We’ll then explore the challenges they face, from academic pressures to personal responsibilities, and how gender can impact their experiences and performance in college. Finally, we’ll consider why some students choose to leave college, reflecting on the factors that make completing their studies difficult. Through this discussion, we’ll gain a clearer understanding of the unique cognitive changes, challenges, and social influences that define early adulthood. This will give us insight into not only the development of the mind but also the ways life experiences shape our growth during this transformative time. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-II ” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Describe how cognitive development continues in young adulthood Introduction: In young adulthood, thinking continues to grow beyond what we learned in childhood and teenage years. According to Piaget, the formal operational stage ends in adolescence, where we develop the ability for logical and abstract thinking. However, in early adulthood, we move into an even more advanced stage. Young adults start using more flexible and practical ways of thinking to understand the world around them. They begin to see that real-life problems are complex, with more than one right answer. Relativistic Thinking: During this time, young adults develop relativistic thinking. This means they can see things from multiple perspectives and understand that different views can all be correct in different ways. Unlike black-and-white thinking in younger years, adults learn that some answers depend on personal beliefs or circumstances. For example, two people may have different but valid opinions on a topic like career choices, based on their own life experiences and values. Postformal Thought: Gisela Labouvie-Vief expanded on Piaget’s ideas with the concept of postformal thought. She explained that adult thinking involves not just logical thinking but also practical experience, personal values, and moral judgments. This type of thinking, called pragmatic thinking, helps young adults make decisions based on both reason and emotion. It means recognizing that life’s challenges often have complex solutions, and sometimes, we must accept contradictions and imperfections. Developing the Brain’s Executive Functions: In early adulthood, the prefrontal cortex—the brain area responsible for planning, impulse control, and decision-making—continues to mature. This part of the brain develops well into our late twenties. As a result, young adults become better at planning, controlling impulses, and making thoughtful decisions. This ongoing growth also makes it easier for young adults to learn new things, like a foreign language or a musical instrument, more effectively than in older adulthood. The Shift to Sophisticated Thinking: Overall, young adulthood brings a shift to sophisticated thinking. Adults combine logic with personal experience and emotional understanding, helping them handle the challenges of life. They learn that not all problems have straightforward solutions, and they gain a broader view of issues. This advanced thinking prepares young adults for real-world responsibilities, such as balancing work, relationships, and personal growth. Conclusion: Cognitive development in young adulthood goes beyond simple logic and moves toward complex, practical, and adaptable thinking. Young adults learn to consider multiple viewpoints, navigate real-world challenges, and make decisions that align with their personal values and circumstances. This evolution in thinking equips them to face the complexities of adult life with greater understanding and resilience. Question 2:- Compare and contrast Perry’s and Schaie’s approaches to cognitive development in young adulthood Introduction: Cognitive development in young adulthood focuses on how individuals’ ways of thinking continue to grow and change as they move from adolescence into adulthood. Two well-known theories that describe this growth are Perry’s and Schaie’s approaches. Each theory offers a unique view of how young adults think, process information, and make decisions. Perry’s theory emphasizes how young adults’ understanding of knowledge becomes more complex, while Schaie’s theory focuses on how they use knowledge to solve real-life problems. Perry’s Approach to Cognitive Development: Perry’s approach centers on the progression of thinking from dualism to relativism. Dualism is a stage where young adults see knowledge in black-and-white terms—as either right or wrong. As they grow, they shift toward relativistic thinking, realizing that knowledge can be flexible and depends on context. This shift allows them to understand that there can be multiple correct answers to a question, depending on different viewpoints. Perry described stages of intellectual development in young adults. In these stages, individuals move from a basic understanding of knowledge to a more complex view, where they appreciate ambiguity and uncertainty. This transition is key for developing critical thinking skills, as it allows young adults to assess different ideas without seeing things as strictly right or wrong. Perry also pointed out the importance of contextual factors in cognitive development. He believed that experiences in college settings—where students encounter diverse viewpoints and are encouraged to think critically—play a significant role in shaping this new way of thinking. Schaie’s Approach to Cognitive Development: Schaie’s approach focuses on how young adults use knowledge rather than just how they

Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-II Read More »

Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-I

Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-I Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-I.” Early adulthood is an exciting time, full of new responsibilities and growth. But to make the most of it, it’s important to understand how our bodies and minds develop and what we can do to keep ourselves healthy. First, we’ll talk about how the body grows and stays healthy during these years. This stage is unique because, even though the body has reached full maturity, there are certain ways to maintain its peak performance and overall well-being. Next, we’ll explore why a healthy diet is especially important at this age. Since early adulthood is when many long-term health habits are set, making the right choices now can lead to a healthier life in the future. We’ll also discuss the challenges faced by people with physical disabilities in early adulthood. This stage of life can be especially challenging for those with disabilities, as they may encounter additional obstacles in work, social life, and even physical well-being. Lastly, we’ll cover the effects of stress and what we can do to manage it. Stress is a big part of life during these years, but knowing how to handle it effectively can make a world of difference for our mental and physical health. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-I ” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Describe how the body develops and stays healthy during early adulthood Introduction: Early adulthood, which generally ranges from 20 to 40 years of age, is a phase of life where physical development and growth are mostly complete. By this time, most people have reached their full height and have maximum physical strength and stamina. This is the period when people are typically at their peak health, experiencing fewer illnesses and recovering more quickly than at other ages. But while physical maturity has been achieved, maintaining good health still requires intentional choices. Let’s explore how young adults can keep their bodies healthy during this stage. Importance of a Healthy Diet: A nutritious diet is essential to staying healthy in early adulthood. Eating balanced meals that include low-fat foods, vegetables, fruits, whole grains, lean meats, and low-fat dairy products is important. Such a diet helps young adults get enough complex carbohydrates and fiber, which play key roles in overall well-being. Getting adequate calcium is also necessary, as it helps prevent conditions like osteoporosis in the future, which affects bone health. By eating right, young adults can set a solid foundation for long-term health. The Role of Regular Exercise: Regular physical activity is also critical to maintaining health in early adulthood. Exercise not only boosts physical fitness but also improves mental well-being by reducing stress and enhancing mood. Young adults should aim to make physical activity a part of their daily routine. Despite being in great physical shape, some young adults still make risky health choices, such as poor eating habits, using substances, or not exercising enough, which can lead to secondary aging – aging caused by lifestyle choices rather than just getting older. Challenges and Risks: While young adults may feel invincible due to their peak health, it’s easy to overlook the impact of poor habits. Engaging in unhealthy behaviors like skipping meals, eating junk food, smoking, drinking, or not exercising enough can lead to health issues later in life. Making good choices in early adulthood helps prevent health problems and ensures a better quality of life in the long run. Conclusion: Early adulthood is a time of peak health and physical ability, but staying healthy requires conscious efforts in diet, exercise, and lifestyle choices. With a balanced diet, regular exercise, and avoiding risky behaviors, young adults can maintain their health now and set the stage for a healthier future. Question 2:- Explain why a healthy diet is particularly important in early adulthood Introduction: In early adulthood, a balanced and nutritious diet is very important for maintaining health, energy, and overall well-being. This is a stage when most people are at the peak of their physical abilities and facing new life challenges, like work, studies, and relationships. A healthy diet not only supports the body’s physical needs but also improves mental health, helps prevent future health issues, and boosts daily productivity. Here, we explore why good nutrition is especially important for young adults. 1. Supporting Peak Physical Health: During early adulthood, individuals are often at their strongest physically, with the best muscle strength, quick reaction times, and high energy levels. Eating a balanced diet rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals helps young adults maintain these qualities. Proper nutrition supports muscle growth, bone strength, and the body’s overall performance, allowing individuals to stay fit and active. 2. Preventing Future Health Problems: Healthy eating habits established in early adulthood can prevent many long-term health issues such as obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Diets that include plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins provide nutrients that protect against these conditions. Building these habits now helps young adults avoid serious health concerns as they age. 3. Enhancing Mental Health and Brain Function: Nutrition doesn’t just affect the body; it also plays a big role in mental health and cognitive (thinking) skills. A healthy diet can help improve mood, reduce stress, and boost memory and focus. Since early adulthood can be a stressful time with new responsibilities, a balanced diet can help young adults handle stress better and improve their ability to think and make decisions. 4. Providing Energy and Improving Productivity: Young adults are often busy with school, work, social activities, and family responsibilities. A nutritious diet provides steady energy throughout the day, which helps with focus, productivity, and overall energy levels. Eating regular meals and healthy snacks prevents tiredness and helps young adults keep up with their busy lives. 5. Helping with Weight Management: With obesity becoming more common, a healthy diet is

Physical And Cognitive Development In Early Adulthood-I Read More »

Social And Personality Development Adolescence-I

Social And Personality Development Adolescence-I Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “Social And Personality Development Adolescence-I.” This stage in life brings major changes, and today we’re going to explore how adolescents form their sense of self and navigate the world around them. Firstly, we’ll look at how self-concept and self-esteem develop during this time. Adolescence is a period when we start defining who we are, and our view of ourselves becomes much more complex. This journey of self-understanding and self-worth is unique to each individual, but it’s a universal part of growing up. Next, we’ll discuss how socioeconomic status and race affect self-esteem. Adolescents from different backgrounds may experience self-esteem in varied ways, and understanding these differences is important for appreciating the diversity in adolescent experiences. We’ll then explore Erikson’s theory of identity formation, where adolescence is seen as a critical time for figuring out our values and personal goals. Alongside Erikson, we’ll also examine Marcia’s categories of adolescent identity – a framework that classifies identity formation into different statuses. This will help us understand the variety of ways adolescents approach building their identities. An important part of identity for many adolescents includes religion and spirituality, which can be powerful influences in shaping who they become. We’ll discuss the role these factors play in supporting identity development, offering adolescents a sense of purpose and direction. We’ll also look at the challenges that minority groups face in this process. Adolescents from minority backgrounds may encounter unique pressures and struggles as they work through identity questions. Recognizing these challenges is key to understanding their journeys. Adolescents today also face a range of dangers due to the pressures of growing up – from risky behaviors to emotional stresses. We’ll identify these dangers and discuss how they can impact a young person’s well-being. Finally, we’ll address a very sensitive but important topic: adolescent suicide. By understanding the reasons that might lead some adolescents to this point, we can become more aware and supportive of those who may be struggling. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Social And Personality Development Adolescence-I. ” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Describe how self-concept and self-esteem develop during adolescence Introduction: During adolescence, self-concept and self-esteem undergo significant changes as individuals begin to form a more complex understanding of themselves. Adolescents start to see their own identities in a deeper way, which helps shape their overall self-identity. This answer will explore how self-concept and self-esteem develop during adolescence. Self-Concept Development Differentiation Between Self and Others: Adolescents start to differentiate between how they perceive themselves and how others perceive them. This ability to recognize differing perspectives marks a developmental advancement. For instance, an adolescent might describe herself as “laid-back” while internally feeling “nervous and emotional,” indicating a growing awareness of the multifaceted nature of identity. Broader and More Organized Self-Concept: As adolescents mature, their self-concept becomes broader and more organized. They begin to view themselves in more abstract terms, often incorporating ideological beliefs (e.g., “I’m an environmentalist”) rather than just physical characteristics (e.g., “I’m the fastest runner in my class”). This shift reflects a deeper understanding of their identity and values. Self-Esteem Development Influence of Self-Concept on Self-Esteem: Self-esteem, which refers to how adolescents feel about themselves, is influenced by their self-concept. While adolescents may have a clear understanding of who they are, this does not guarantee that they like themselves. For example, an adolescent might excel academically but struggle with self-esteem in social situations. Gender Differences in Self-Esteem: Gender differences also play a role in self-esteem during adolescence. Research indicates that girls often experience lower self-esteem compared to boys, particularly due to concerns about physical appearance and academic performance. This vulnerability can lead to fluctuations in self-esteem as adolescents navigate their social environments. Conclusion: Overall, the development of self-concept and self-esteem during adolescence is a complex interplay of self-awareness, social feedback, and individual experiences, leading to a more nuanced understanding of identity. Question 2:- Discuss socioeconomic status and race differences in self-esteem Introduction: Socioeconomic status (SES) and race are two important factors that can influence self-esteem in adolescents. Adolescents from different backgrounds often experience varying levels of self-esteem based on the resources, opportunities, and challenges they encounter in their daily lives. This answer will explore how SES and race shape self-esteem, with a look into the effects of social class, access to resources, and the impact of racial identity. Socioeconomic Status Higher SES and Self-Esteem: Adolescents from higher socioeconomic backgrounds often enjoy more resources, opportunities, and social support, which can boost their self-esteem. Access to quality education, extracurricular activities, and other enriching experiences helps them succeed in various areas. This success often leads to a positive self-image and a stronger sense of self-worth. Lower SES and Self-Esteem: On the other hand, adolescents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face challenges that negatively impact their self-esteem. Limited access to good education, financial instability, and social stigma can create obstacles in their lives. Additionally, as adolescents grow older, they become more aware of social status markers like clothing, gadgets, and other symbols of wealth. Those who feel they lack these visible markers may experience lower self-esteem, as they might feel inferior in comparison to their peers. Race Differences Historical Self-Esteem Trends: Historically, African American and Hispanic adolescents were often reported to have lower self-esteem than their white peers. This difference was attributed to societal prejudice and discrimination, which made some adolescents feel inferior. Recent Findings on African American Adolescents: In more recent studies, however, African American adolescents have shown self-esteem levels that are comparable to, or even higher than, those of white adolescents. This positive self-esteem is often linked to a strong racial identity and a sense of community pride, which gives them a solid foundation of self-worth. The Concept of “Ethgender”: Research now recognizes the concept of “ethgender,” which highlights how both race

Social And Personality Development Adolescence-I Read More »

Social And Personality Development Adolescence-II

Social And Personality Development Adolescence-II Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “Social And Personality Development Adolescence-II.” This period of life is full of changes, and understanding these changes is crucial for you as you navigate your own experiences. First, we will describe family relationships during adolescence. We will look at how these relationships evolve and the role families play in supporting teens during this critical time. Next, we will examine how relationships with peers change as you grow older. Friendships become more important, and understanding these shifts can help you manage your social life better. Then, we will discuss the concepts of popularity and unpopularity in adolescence. We will also talk about how adolescents respond to peer pressure, which can greatly influence your choices and behaviors. Following that, we will describe the functions and characteristics of dating during adolescence. This includes understanding how sexuality develops and how dating can impact your social life and emotional well-being. We will also explore how sexual orientation develops during this stage. It’s important to understand that this is a personal journey for everyone. Finally, we will summarize the challenges of teen pregnancy and discuss the types of programs that have proven to be effective in preventing it. This topic is essential for understanding the responsibilities that come with relationships. By the end of our session today, you will have a better grasp of these crucial aspects of adolescence, helping you navigate this exciting but sometimes challenging period in your life. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “Social And Personality Development Adolescence-II” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Describe what family relationships are like during adolescence Introduction: During adolescence, family relationships often go through important changes that can be complicated. This stage of life is marked by a strong desire for independence, which affects how teens interact with their families. Understanding these changes can help us appreciate the challenges and growth opportunities that arise in family life during this time. Increased Tension and Conflict: As teenagers seek autonomy, they may begin to disagree more with their parents. This often leads to conflict. Research shows that while parents and teens might share similar views on larger issues, they often have different opinions on personal matters like music and fashion. This struggle for independence can create misunderstandings and make family life more tense. Changing Dynamics: The bond between adolescents and their parents can shift from being very close to feeling strained. Teens may see their parents as overly controlling, while parents may feel lost or upset about their child’s desire for more freedom. This change in dynamics can create feelings of alienation and confusion for both parties. Cultural Influences: The amount of independence that adolescents seek can vary based on cultural background. In more traditional cultures, for example, there may be less emphasis on individualism, leading to fewer conflicts between parents and their children. Understanding these cultural differences is essential for recognizing how family relationships develop. Perceptions of Parental Control: Teens often have different views on how much control their parents have over their lives. Studies indicate that gender and socio-economic status can influence these perceptions. For example, girls may feel their parents have more control over their social activities, while boys may feel restricted in academic matters. These differing views can add to the complexity of family interactions. Impact of Peer Relationships: As adolescents start spending more time with their friends, their family relationships may become less central. This shift can lead to fewer family interactions and a greater reliance on peers for emotional support. While friendships are important, it’s crucial to maintain strong family bonds during this time. Conclusion: Family relationships during adolescence are shaped by the quest for independence, changing dynamics, cultural influences, and differing perceptions of parental control. These factors can lead to both challenges and opportunities for growth. Understanding these aspects can help families navigate this complex stage of life together, fostering a supportive environment for both parents and teens. Question 2:- Explain how relationships with peers change during adolescence Introduction: During adolescence, relationships with peers become very important and go through significant changes. These changes are crucial for the social and emotional development of young people. Understanding how peer relationships evolve can help us appreciate their role in shaping who adolescents become. Increased Importance of Peer Relationships: As teenagers grow, they start to spend much more time with their friends than with their families. Research shows that adolescents may spend about twice as much time with their peers as they do with their parents. This change highlights how important peer interactions become during this stage of life. Social Comparison: Adolescents often engage in social comparison, where they compare themselves to their friends. They evaluate their opinions, abilities, and physical changes against those of their peers. This process is especially common during early adolescence because of the many physical and cognitive changes happening at this age. Friends serve as a reference point for adolescents to understand their development and place in the social world. Formation of Cliques and Crowds: During this time, adolescents often form cliques, which are small groups of close friends who spend a lot of time together. Additionally, they may identify with larger groups called crowds. These crowds share similar traits or interests but may not interact directly with each other. Being part of these groups can have a big impact on adolescents’ identities and how they behave socially. Experimentation with Identity: Peer relationships provide a chance for adolescents to experiment with different identities and roles. They may try new behaviors, styles, and interests to see what fits best with their friends. This experimentation is a vital part of their development and helps them discover who they are. Peer Pressure and Conformity: The desire for acceptance and belonging can lead to peer pressure. This means that adolescents may feel pushed to behave or think in ways that are common in their peer

Social And Personality Development Adolescence-II Read More »

An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-II

An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-II Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-II.” This is an important stage of life where many changes occur, both physically and mentally. We will cover several key topics that will help us understand this period better. First, we will discuss the gender differences during puberty. Understanding how boys and girls experience changes differently is essential. Next, we will look at how the timing of puberty affects adolescents and how early or late changes can impact their lives. We will also examine the impact of brain development on thinking and decision-making processes. This includes how changes in the brain can influence how adolescents think and act. Additionally, we will talk about the effects of sleep deprivation on teenagers, as getting enough sleep is crucial during this time. Another important topic is the formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory, which explains how adolescents develop advanced thinking skills. We will compare this with the information processing approach to see how different theories explain cognitive development during these years. Academic performance is another area we will focus on, discussing the factors that influence how well adolescents do in school and reasons why some may drop out. Lastly, we will look at the advantages and disadvantages of cyberspace and how it impacts the lives of teenagers today. We will also discuss the physical changes during puberty, the nutritional needs of adolescents, and how Piaget and the information processing approach explain cognitive development during this period. Finally, we will touch on how adolescent egocentrism affects their thinking and behavior, as well as how they use the Internet in their daily lives. By the end of our discussion, you will have a better understanding of these important aspects of adolescent development. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-II ” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Question 1:- Describe the physical changes that adolescents experience during puberty Introduction: Puberty is an important time in an adolescent’s life when their bodies undergo many physical changes as they grow from childhood into adulthood. This process is mainly driven by hormones and can differ from one person to another. Understanding these changes helps us support adolescents during this challenging phase. Below are the key physical changes that happen during puberty. Growth Spurts : During puberty, adolescents experience rapid growth in both height and weight. On average, boys grow about 4.1 inches (10.4 cm) each year, while girls grow about 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) per year. Generally, girls start this growth spurt earlier than boys, often beginning in their early teenage years. Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics a- For Girls: Breast Development: One of the first signs of puberty in girls is the development of breasts. Menstruation: Girls usually begin their menstrual cycle, known as menarche, between the ages of 9 and 16. This marks the start of their ability to reproduce. Body Shape Changes: Girls tend to gain more body fat, especially around the hips and thighs, resulting in a more rounded body shape. b- For Boys: Testicular Enlargement: The testes are often the first part of the male body to grow, indicating the start of puberty. Penile Growth: The penis also grows in size during puberty. Facial and Body Hair: Boys will start to grow facial hair, along with pubic hair and body hair on their chest and underarms. Voice Changes: The voice deepens as the larynx and vocal cords grow larger. Changes in Skin and Hair Skin Changes: Adolescents often experience increased oil production in their skin, which can lead to acne. They may notice their skin feeling more oily during this time. Hair Growth: In addition to new body hair, adolescents might also see changes in the thickness and texture of the hair on their heads. Changes in Muscle Mass Muscle Development: Boys usually see an increase in muscle mass and strength due to higher testosterone levels, leading to a more muscular body. Body Composition: Girls may experience a rise in body fat percentage, which is normal and important for their reproductive health. Changes in Body Proportions : As they grow, adolescents notice changes in their body proportions. Boys may develop broader shoulders, while girls may develop wider hips, creating different body shapes for males and females. Changes in Bone Structure: During puberty, bones grow longer and denser. This growth contributes to increased height and can lead to changes in posture and coordination as adolescents adjust to their new body proportions. Conclusion: Puberty is a crucial time of physical changes that prepare adolescents for adulthood. These changes can differ greatly among individuals and are influenced by factors like genetics and environment. By understanding these transformations, we can better support young people as they navigate this complex and sometimes confusing stage of development. Question 2:- Explain the nutritional needs and concerns of adolescents Introduction: Adolescence is a vital time for growth and development, where proper nutrition plays a key role in supporting physical, mental, and emotional changes. During this period, teenagers experience rapid growth and increased activity levels, making it essential for them to meet their nutritional needs. Below are the main nutritional needs and concerns that adolescents should be aware of to promote their overall health and well-being. Increased Caloric Intake : As adolescents grow, they require more calories to support their rapid growth and high levels of physical activity. On average, girls need about 2,200 calories a day, while boys require around 2,800 calories. This increased caloric intake is vital for providing the energy needed for growth spurts and everyday activities. Balanced Diet: A balanced diet is crucial for adolescents to ensure they get all the necessary nutrients. A healthy diet should include a mix of different food groups: Fruits and Vegetables: These are rich in vitamins, minerals, and

An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-II Read More »

An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-I

An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-I Hey Mumbai University IDOL students! Today, we are going to explore some fascinating concepts in Developmental Psychology, focusing on “An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-I.” We’ll be covering some key ideas to understand how humans grow and change over their entire lives, from birth to old age. We’ll begin with the question, “What is lifespan development?” This will help us understand the study of changes people go through across their lives and the different factors that shape these changes. Next, we’ll talk about the scope of lifespan development, which means looking at the different areas this field of psychology focuses on. This includes physical, cognitive, and emotional changes that happen throughout life. By understanding the scope, we’ll see just how broad and interesting this field is. Another big topic we’ll look at is cohort influences on development. Cohorts are groups of people born around the same time, and they often experience similar historical and cultural events that shape their lives in unique ways. We’ll discuss how these influences affect people born in different generations. We’ll also define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. In simple terms, this means understanding what this field studies and why it’s important to us. Then, we’ll explore the different areas that lifespan development specialists cover. Specialists in this field focus on a variety of areas, from how kids learn and grow to how adults change in later life. By understanding these specializations, we’ll get a better idea of the depth of this field. Finally, we’ll discuss some of the basic influences on human development. These include factors like biology, environment, and culture that shape us from the moment we’re born. So, SYBA IDOL Mumbai University students, get ready to unwrap the mysteries of “An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-I ” with customized IDOL notes just for you. Let’s jump into this exploration together Check your Progress: Question 1:- What is life span development? Introduction: Lifespan development is a field that studies how people grow and change from the moment they are conceived until the end of their lives. It focuses on physical, mental, social, and emotional changes throughout all stages of life. In this answer, we’ll explore key features of lifespan development, including its scientific approach, focus on human growth, the concepts of stability and change, and plasticity. Scientific Approach: Lifespan development uses a scientific approach to study growth and change. Researchers create theories about how and why people develop, then test these ideas through experiments. This method helps psychologists understand patterns and predict behaviors throughout different life stages. Focus on Human Development: This field is specifically focused on human growth. While some areas of psychology may study animals, lifespan development looks only at people. It considers universal principles as well as differences based on culture, race, and ethnicity, helping to understand both common and unique aspects of development. Stability and Change: Lifespan development examines both stability and change in human behavior. Stability refers to traits that remain constant, while change involves growth and shifts over time. By exploring both aspects, this field provides a comprehensive view of human life. Plasticity: Plasticity refers to the idea that people can adapt and change at any age. Lifespan development sees growth as a continuous process, meaning individuals can learn new skills and make changes in later life. This concept emphasizes the flexibility of human development. Conclusion: lifespan development studies how people grow from conception to death. With its scientific methods, focus on human experiences, attention to stability and change, and belief in plasticity, this field offers valuable insights into human growth. Understanding these concepts helps us appreciate the complexity of development and the potential for growth at every age. Follow Us For More Updates Instagram Telegram Whatsapp Question 2:- What it is the scope of lifespan development? Introduction: The scope of lifespan development covers a wide range of areas that help us understand how humans grow and change throughout their lives. This field looks at both topical areas, such as physical and cognitive development, and age range areas, which examine different stages of life. By studying these components, we can gain a better understanding of the complexities of human development. 1. Topical Areas a. Physical Development: Physical development focuses on how our biological factors affect our growth. This includes studying how the brain, nervous system, and overall physical health influence our development. Researchers look at the effects of things like premature birth, nutrition, aging, and physical performance on how we grow over time. b. Cognitive Development: Cognitive development examines how our thinking abilities change as we grow older. This includes aspects like learning, memory, and problem-solving skills. Researchers study how our intelligence and other cognitive skills develop at different stages of life, from childhood to late adulthood. c. Personality and Social Development: This area explores how our personality traits change or remain stable over time. It also looks at how our social interactions and relationships develop as we age. Understanding personality and social development helps us see how we connect with others throughout our lives. 2. Age Range Areas Lifespan development studies people from conception to old age, focusing on how growth varies across different life stages. These stages include: Infancy: The period of rapid growth and basic learning. Childhood: A time for social, emotional, and cognitive development. Adolescence: A stage of exploration and identity formation. Adulthood: Includes young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood, each with its own developmental tasks and challenges. 3. Influences on Development a. Normative Age-Graded Influences: These are events that most people in a culture experience at a certain age. For example, starting school or getting married are common life events that influence development. b. Normative History-Graded Influences: These influences come from historical events that impact a group of people born around the same time, like wars or economic changes. Such events can shape attitudes and experiences within a cohort. c. Non-Normative Life Events: These are unique events that significantly affect an individual’s development. Examples include serious illness, the loss of a loved one, or other

An Introduction To Lifespan Development, Adolescence Physical And Cognitive Development-I Read More »